Manipur

Manipur’s history is one of dramatic evolution—an ancient princely state nestled in the northeastern hills of India, witnessed royal rule, insurgency, and autonomy movements, all while grappling with ethnic diversity and political aspirations.

History

Manipur’s political history dates back to at least 33 CE, to the reign of King Pakhangba. The valley was initially divided into several principalities, which were gradually unified. The state formation saw the integration of various tribes and the transformation from tribal to feudal structures. The Cheitharol Kumbaba, Manipur’s royal chronicle, is an important source for this information (Singh, 1965).

Burmese kings had a longstanding ambition to annex Manipur due to its significant geo-political position. From 1819, the Burmese army overran Manipur, leading to a period known as the Seven Years’ Devastation (Chahi Taret Khuntapka). During this time, it forcibly relocated large numbers of Manipuris to Burma (Phanjoubam, 2005). The British East India Company was concerned about the Burmese presence threatening their territories and declared war on Burma in 1824. They provided military assistance, including arms and money, to Gambhir Singh, an exiled Manipuri Prince, to retake his country. Gambhir Singh successfully retook his country with British support. This war concluded with the Treaty of Yandabo, signed on 24 February 1826, in which the King of Burma ceded large parts of Northeastern India, including Manipur, to the British. Manipur was restored to Gambhir Singh, except Kabwa Valley. (Aitchison Vol. 12, 1857)

For several decades after the Treaty, Manipur largely maintained its internal sovereignty, although under increasing British influence. They considered Manipur’s independent status as a desirable buffer zone between Burma and its territories in Assam and Bengal (Phanjoubam, 2005). In 1890-91, Manipur got embroiled in internal conflict and palace disputes between the royal family. The Government of India ordered the removal of Senapati Tikendrajit Singh and recognised Kula Chandra Dhaja Singh as the Maharaja. Chief Commissioner of Assam, Mr. Quinton, was murdered while he was sent to Manipur to carry out this order. This incident triggered the Anglo-Manipur war of 1891, which led to the British conquest of Manipur. Instead of full annexation, the British decided to transform it into an 11-salute Princely state (Singh, 1965).

At the time of India’s independence in 1947, Manipur was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh. The Hindu Meiteis predominantly occupied the Imphal Valley, while the Christian Kukis and the Nagas were in the hills (Singh, 1965). The British colonial period saw significant demographic changes, notably the migration of Kukis into the region. The Meitei insurgents wanted independence from India, the Kukis wanted a separate state, and the Nagas wanted to merge along the concept of Greater Nagaland, or Nagalim (Chhonkar, 2018).

After 1947

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

The demand for Manipur's independence first emerged in 1948 when citizens submitted a petition calling for a legislative council. Political parties like the Nikhil Manipuri Mahasabha and Kuki National Assembly applied pressure to move from monarchy to democracy. Prime Minister Nehru wrote to Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh, suggesting a union between Manipur and India. In response, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession and the Standstill Agreement, though not the Merger Agreement, thereby establishing a constitutional monarchy in Manipur (Khan, 2024).

Nehru's letter to Maharaja of Manipur

The Manipur State Congress, however, pushed for full integration with India. To achieve this, they launched the satyagraha movement and campaigned for a responsible government in Manipur (Samorjit and Robinson, 2022). In September 1949, Assam's Governor, Sir Akbar Hydari, invited Maharaja Bodhachandra Singh to Shillong and urged him to sign the Manipur Merger Agreement. The Maharaja initially refused but later agreed after negotiations, in exchange for his title, some ceremonial roles, and a privy purse (Haokip, 2017).

On 15 October 1949, Manipur officially became a chief commissioner's province within the Union of India. When India adopted its Constitution on 26 January 1950, Manipur was classified as a Part C state, remaining under direct central administration (Mangal, 2020). In 1956, the States Reorganisation Commission Act redesignated all Part C states, including Manipur, as Union Territories, which continued to be centrally governed. Shortly after, the Territorial Councils Act of 1956 was passed, granting some autonomy in local affairs through the establishment of territorial councils in Manipur.

Despite these changes, demands for greater autonomy persisted in Manipur. The Ashok Mehta Committee (1978) was formed to review these demands and recommended the introduction of panchayati raj institutions and the transfer of more responsibilities to territorial councils. However, it did not support the public's desire for legislative bodies (Debroy & Pitambar, 2005).

Contrary to the committee's recommendation, the Union government passed the Government of Union Territories Act in 1963, establishing legislative assemblies in five Union Territories, including Manipur, Pondicherry, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, and Goa (MHA, 1963). These assemblies were given powers akin to state legislative assemblies, allowing them to make laws on subjects in the Union and Concurrent lists.

In 1967, Manipur's state legislature passed the Manipur Hill Areas (Acquisition of Chiefs’ Rights) Act, which authorised the government to acquire land rights from local chiefs, compensating them in return. This move sparked protests and reignited the demand for statehood. In response, President's Rule was imposed in Manipur in 1969 (Singh, 2025). On 30 December 1971, Parliament passed the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, which led to the creation of three new states—Meghalaya, Manipur, and Tripura—and two new Union Territories—Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. Manipur became a full-fledged state on 21 January 1972, and President's Rule was lifted in March of the same year (Government of Meghalaya, 2012).

In 1972, Manipur was divided into five districts . Over time, the number of districts in the state has grown to sixteen (Khan, 2024). In 1983, the names of four of the original five districts were changed: Manipur North became Senapati, Manipur South became Churachandpur, Manipur West became Tamenglong, and Manipur East became Ukhrul. Later, Tengnoupal, carved out of Manipur Central, was renamed Chandel. The Imphal district was created in 1996 from the original district of Manipur Central. It was later subdivided into Imphal West and Imphal East districts (Panmei and Singh, 2013).

Internal conflicts

The three principal ethnic groups—Meitei (valley), Naga, and Kuki-Chin (hills)—have experienced shifting population patterns, with notable growth and redistribution of the Kuki-Chin population in various hill districts since the 1980s. Each ethnic group had its own militia and distinct demands. The longstanding competition for land and political recognition has led to repeated outbreaks of violence, such as the 2023 conflict between Meiteis and Kukis, which was triggered by a court order regarding Scheduled Tribe status for the Meitei community. This violence resulted in significant loss of life and displacement (Chatterjee, 2024).

References

• Aitchison, C. U. (1857), A Collection Of Treaties, Engagements And Sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries, Volume 12. 

  
  

• Chatterjee, A. (2024). Competing perspectives of ethno-nationalisms in contemporary India. In Routledge eBooks (pp. 65–78). 

  
  

• Chhonkar, P. S. (2018, April 26). The Quest for Nagalim: Fault lines and challenges in Naga Insurgency. Policy Commons. 

  
  

• Debroy, B., Pitambar, D. K.(2005). Energising Rural Development Through 'Panchayats'. p. 81. Academic Foundation.

  
  

• Government of Meghalaya (2012). The North-eastern Areas (Re-organisation) And Other Related Laws (Amendment) Act, 2012.  

  
  

• Haokip, T. (2012). Political integration of Northeast India: a historical analysis. Strategic Analysis, 36(2), 304–314. 

  
  

• Khan, M. (2024). Manipur. In The Territories and States of India, 2024 (pp. 215-222). Routledge. 

  
  

• Mangal, L. M. (2020). Annexation of Manipur as the 19th state of India: the status of the territory of Manipur in international law since 1949. Beijing L. Rev., 11, 328. 

  
  

• MHA. (1963). The Government Of Union Territories Act, 1963. 

  
  

• Phanjoubam, P. (2005). Manipur: fractured land. India International Centre Quarterly, 32(2/3), 275–287. 

  
  

• Singh, K.J. (2025, May 17). The Side-Lining of the Manipur Hill Areas (Acquisition of Chiefs’ Rights) Act, 1967, and its Consequences » Imphal Review of Arts and Politics. Imphal Review of Arts and Politics :» Stories Behind Northeast News Events. 

  
  

• Singh, R.K.J. (1965).  A Short History of Manipur.