Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh

indiastatestories
Aug 31, 2024
7 min read

Updated: Oct 31

Agar firdaus bar roo-e zameen ast,

Hameen ast-o hameen ast-o hameen ast.

If there is paradise on this earth,

it is this, it is this, it is this.

- Amir Khusrau.

Kashmir's beauty is unparalleled, and so is its history. Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh have a unique nexus in history, forming a triad of Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist religions and cultures. Its unique place in India's political history and the international controversies surrounding its position in the Indian Union make it a frequent feature in public discourse.

Early History

Kashmir is unique for its extensive tradition of historical documentation, dating back to the 12th century CE when Kalhana authored the Rajatarangini. This text is a seminal chronicle of the region's ancient history, covering its dynastic politics and significant cultural shifts under a diverse array of rulers, including Hindus and Buddhists.

Muslim and Sikh rule in Kashmir

From 1339 to 1586, Kashmir was ruled by Muslim sultans who brought Islamic influence to the region. Following this period, the Mughals took control in 1586 under Emperor Akbar, initiating a long stint of Mughal rule that lasted until 1752. This era was known for significant developments in art, architecture, and culture, alongside the consolidation of power. At this time, the region was also influenced by the Sufi tradition of Islam, introduced two centuries prior by Nund Rishi.

The Mughal era was succeeded by Afghan rule (after Ahmad Shah Durrani conquered Kashmir in 1752 CE) from 1753 to 1819, a period characterized by political instability and less cultural flourishing compared to the Mughal administration. In 1819, the Sikhs under Maharaja Ranjit Singh defeated the Sultans and annexed Kashmir, leading to a Sikh rule that lasted until 1846. This period was marked by administrative reforms, but it was also characterised by religious persecution (Government of India, 1908).

Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh

The state of Jammu and Kashmir was formerly referred to as Riyasat e Jammu wa Kashmir wa Ladakh wa Tibet (Kingdom of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, and Tibet). Jammu has historically been associated with the Dogra dynasty, either directly ruled by them or under the larger dominion of Delhi or within the jurisdiction of the Suba of Punjab. Jammu and Kashmir became one political/administrative unit only after the Anglo-Sikh War of 1846. While much of the focus and contention have been on the Kashmir Valley, other areas such as Jammu have not received as much attention in discourse. The perspectives and interests of people in frontier regions like Ladakh, Chitral, Gilgit, Baltistan, and Tibet have been further marginalised in mainstream discussions. While the term "Riyasat" broadly encompassed these frontier regions, Dogra control over distant areas like Chitral and parts of Tibet was often limited and short-lived (Chopra, 2021).

Ladakh

In the early 17th century, Ladakh was an independent state with its religious affiliations under the influence of the Dalai Lama and Tibetan Buddhism. By the mid-18th century (1834), Ladakh was invaded by the Dogra forces from Jammu under the leadership of Zorawar Singh, which led to its incorporation into the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. General Zorawar Singh's military campaigns significantly extended the Dogra territory. He successfully annexed Gilgit-Baltistan in 1839/40, extending his control over areas such as Yasin, Humza, Darel, Chilas, Chitral, and Nagar (Chopra, 2021).

However, stable Dogra control in these frontier regions was often contested and temporary. In 1841, he launched an ambitious but ultimately unsuccessful campaign into Tibet. This period marked a significant expansion of the Dogra influence in the region, shaping its political landscape over the ensuing years. Under the Dogra rule, Ladakh became a strategic region on the northern frontier of India. It served as a commercial and cultural bridge between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent along the Silk Route (Government of India, n.d.).

Anglo Sikh War and Dogra Rule

After the Sikh defeat at the hands of the British in the Anglo-Sikh War of 1846, Dogra Raja Gulab Singh, a former general and confidant of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, acquired the 'kingdom' for 75 lakh Nanak Shahi rupees via the Treaty of Amritsar. The British had multiple strategic goals with this arrangement — they aimed to weaken the Sikhs following their defeat at the Battle of Sobraon, establish a buffer zone between their Indian territories and the expanding interests of Russia and China, and recuperate the costs they had incurred during the war.

After purchasing Kashmir, the Dogras focused on recouping this investment from their subjects, adopting a rentier approach rather than a benevolent rule. They heavily taxed everyone, including artisans, carpenters, boatmen, butchers, bakers, and even prostitutes, leading to widespread resentment and suffering.

While this was especially harsh in the Valley, Dogra rule was perceived differently in Jammu, where elites sometimes benefited.

In the 1920s, due to the predominance of Dogras and Punjabis, along with some Kashmiri Pandits, in high state offices, resentment grew among Muslim subjects in the region. In response to rising discontent and demands for jobs by locals, Maharaja Hari Singh introduced preferential policies for state subjects from 1927. He later established a legislative assembly, the Praja Sabha, in 1934. However, the assembly's powers were limited, and the majority of its members were appointed rather than elected, leading to criticisms of it being a mere "mock show" by figures like Sheikh Abdullah, who lamented the suppression of popular voices.

Rise of Sheikh Abdullah

By 1932, Sheikh Abdullah had become the prominent leader of Kashmir and the co-founder of the All J&K Muslim Conference. However, his influence was largely confined to the Kashmiri Muslims and did not extend significantly into Jammu, Ladakh, or the frontier regions. Recognising the need for a more inclusive approach, Abdullah transformed the Muslim Conference into the J&K National Conference (NC) in 1939, opening membership to Hindus and Sikhs and changing the party flag from green with a white crescent to red with a white plough. Despite these changes, the NC struggled to expand beyond the Valley (Afzal, 2024; Varghese, 2024).

In May 1946, Sheikh Abdullah initiated the Quit Kashmir movement against Maharaja Hari Singh, which led to his arrest and a three-year imprisonment sentence. However, he was released after just sixteen months in September 1947, following interventions by Nehru and Gandhi. Just before Indian independence, both major political factions in Kashmir – the National Conference and the Muslim Conference – were led by Muslims, predominantly supported by Muslims, and both of their leaders were incarcerated (Abdullah, 1986).

Idea of an Independent Kashmir

In Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh felt that he could perhaps manoeuvre an independent kingdom for himself, and he instructed his Prime Minister Ram Chandra Kak to bide time. Disliking the idea of becoming a part of India, which was being democratised, or of Pakistan, which was Islamic, Hari Singh saw the independence of Jammu and Kashmir as an alternative and viable option. Kak fueled Hari Singh’s desires, making him believe that Jammu and Kashmir could be an independent country (Singh, 1947).

Jinnah's offer and Hari Singh's Refusal

In July 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and his team actively sought to negotiate with Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir, offering him favourable conditions that would exclude the Congress and Sheikh Abdullah. These conditions included promises of complete internal autonomy with a largely nominated Assembly, as Jinnah was not particularly supportive of democratic governance. Despite these enticing offers, the Maharaja resisted, also declining Jinnah's request to visit the state for health reasons, recognising the potential political complications his presence might cause (Government of India, 1947).

Accession of Jammu and Kashmir:

In August 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh appointed Major General Janak Singh Katoch as Prime Minister amid rising communal violence in Jammu and Kashmir. By September, revolts erupted in Poonch and Mirpur, backed by Pakistan, while the tribal Pathan militias prepared for large-scale invasion. On September 19, the Maharaja signaled willingness to accede to India, and Sheikh Abdullah was released on September 29 to secure his support. By late October, tribal invaders neared Srinagar, prompting urgent appeals for Indian military aid.

On October 26, 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession, joining Jammu and Kashmir to India with a pledge to hold a future plebiscite. The accession was accepted by Lord Mountbatten on October 27, enabling Indian troops to intervene and defend the region against the invasion. This marked the formal beginning of Kashmir’s disputed status, as Pakistan contested the accession and the promised plebiscite never materialized.

Post-Accession Developments

In 1948, India took the Kashmir issue to the United Nations. The UNSC recommended a ceasefire, withdrawal of Pakistani troops, and a plebiscite – none of which were fully implemented (UN, 1948). Later, in 1950, Article 370 was introduced, granting Jammu and Kashmir special constitutional status (Government of India, 1950). In 1953, Sheikh Abdullah was dismissed and jailed after his autonomy demands intensified.

Decades later, on August 5, 2019, Article 370 was abrogated, and the state was reorganised into two Union Territories – Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh – marking a major constitutional and political shift (Ministry of Home Affairs, 2019).