India 1872 - 1941
We all know about the Radcliffe Line and the Partition of India. However, just a few months before the partition, there was a real danger of total Balkanization of British India. Let us dive into some history of events leading to the Partition and formation of India's external boundaries.
In April 1947, the future of India and Pakistan was uncertain. Viceroy Lord Mountbatten had proposed a "Plan Balkan". According to this "if Partition was to occur, it was the responsibility of the Indians themselves. The provinces [Pink regions in map]... would have the right to determine their own future, while Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned [ Boundary commission- later Radcliffe line], primarily for voting purposes. Only Sylhet (as a predominantly Muslim district) [just north of Tripura] in Assam would join a Muslim province, created by partitioning Bengal" (Narayani Basu, 2020).
The problem with the (first) Mountbatten plan ('Plan Balkan') was that provinces could become independent successor states! (imagine all pink regions splitting!). VPMenon, India's Constitutional Advisor, found this idea abhorrent, knowing neither Jinnah nor other leaders would agree. At his insistence, an alternative plan was drawn up. But the fate of 565+ princely states (yellow regions) remained uncertain during Plan Balkan. Nehru was horrified by the revised Plan Balkan, which proposed dividing India into multiple entities with the right to secede, sparking unrest. Mountbatten's failure to disclose this plan and his misleading instructions eroded trust between VP Menon and Nehru, with lasting impacts on India's history.
Menon was called to propose an alternative plan. The 'Menon Plan' aimed to retain the essential unity of India while accommodating the desires of various regions or provinces to secede if they chose to do so. It sought to find a middle ground between unity and allowing autonomy. The drafting of the Menon Plan occurred under extreme time constraints. Menon had to quickly create a comprehensive draft that could potentially determine the future of India. Narayani Basu, says, "VP held a draft... the first official draft of the terms of India’s independence, and of the future of South Asia: the Menon Plan.
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The June 3rd Plan (aka Menon Plan/ Menon-MountbattenPlan), determined the broader terms of the Partition and formed the basis of India Independence Act 1947. It included, the provincial division of India and Pakistan was decided (except boundaries of Punjab and Bengal), giving both sovereignty and autonomy to make make their own constitution. Lastly, the princely states were to be given the right to join either India or Pakistan (with no option to remain independent), based on two major factors: geographical contiguity and the people's wishes.
The draft of the Instrument of Accession (IoA) prepared by the States Department headed by Sardar Patel was circulated, which was subsequently approved. Three types of Instrument of Accession (IoA) suiting the three categories of the Princely States were finalised on 31 July 1947.
The Indian Independence Bill was drafted alongside these events, resulting in the Indian Independence Act of 1947. This compact act, with just 20 clauses and 3 schedules, created two new dominions: India and Pakistan. Pakistan was divided into Pakistan and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), while the Bengal and Punjab provinces were partitioned between the two nations.
The Indian Independence Act partially defined the external boundaries of India and Pakistan, with Punjab and Bengal set to be divided by the Boundary Commission led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe (see Punjab story). Meanwhile, princely states were free to join either dominion, as per Section 2(4) of the Act.
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The Integration of princely states of India between 1947-49 is itself fascinating story of the valiant efforts of Sardar Patel and V P Menon. The duo ensured that less than three years, all the princely states within Indian boundary (including the reluctant and warring states like Hyderabad, Junagadh, Travancore, Jodhpur, and Jammu and Kashmir) acceded to India. Their cumulative efforts reshaped India as below.
Primary Sources: V P Menon- Unsung Architect of Modern India (Narayani Basu); Story of Integration of Indian States (Menon) ; Transfer of Power (Menon); White paper on Indian States (1950); Digitized maps of British India; Administrative Atlas of India. Maps by Mehr Kalra. Content by Shivakumar Jolad.